Institutional strength, peacebuilding, and productive entrepreneurship - exploratory analysis in Colombia
Abstract
After more than half a century of armed conflict, Colombia is moving towards a post-conflict period. National and regional strategies aimed to strengthen institutional capacities, promote productive entrepreneurship and reduce organized violence and crime, are crucial lines of action for the alleviation of current (and future) grievances among ex-combatants, and Colombian society in general. This study presents an exploratory analysis on institutional strength, peacebuilding, and productive entrepreneurship in Colombia. Three composite indices based upon international assessments or seminal studies were developed, namely: Institutional Strength Index; Building Peace Index (based on the Negative Peace Index and Positive Peace Index); and Productive Entrepreneurship Index. The results showed a significant correlation between Institutional Strength Index and Productive Entrepreneurship Index. Population is the variable with the most significant correlation with productive entrepreneurship, employment, GDP, industrial sophistication, innovation, crime and certain types of violence (sexual and domestic).
Keyword : institutions, peacebuilding, entrepreneurship, development studies, regional studies, Colombia
How to Cite
Cortés-Sánchez, J. D. (2018). Institutional strength, peacebuilding, and productive entrepreneurship - exploratory analysis in Colombia. Business: Theory and Practice, 19, 88-102. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2018.10
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Acemoglu D, Robinson J (2008) The role of institutions in growth and development. Washington: The World Bank.
Acemoglu D, Robinson J (2012) Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. New York: Crown Publishing Group.
Acemoglu D, García C, Robinson J (2012) Finding Eldorado: slavery and long-run development in Colombia. Journal of Comparative Economics 40 (4): 534-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.07.003
Acemoglu D, Johnson S, Robinson J (2005) Institutions as the fundamental cause of long-run growth. In: Aghion P, Dur-lauf S (Eds) Handbook of economic growth. North Holland: Elsevier, 385-472.
Alther G (2006) Colombian peace communities: the role of NGOs in supporting resistance to violence and oppression. Development in Practice 16 (3-4): 278-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520600694828
Aparicio S, Urbano D, Gómez D (2016) The role of innovative entrepreneurship within Colombian business cycle scenarios: a system dynamics approach. Futures 81: 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2016.02.004
Arjona A (2016) Institutions, civilian resistance, and wartime social order: a process-driven natural experiment in the Colombian Civil War. Latin American Politics and Society 58 (3): 99-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2016.00320.x
Avilés, W (2001) Institutions, military policy, and human rights in Colombia. Latin American Perspectives 28 (1): 31-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X0102800103
Baumol, W (1996) Entrepreneurship: productive, unproductive, and destructive. Journal of Business Venturing 11: 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)00014-X
Bettencourt L, Lobo J, Strumsky D (2007) Invention in the city: Increasing returns to patenting as a scaling function of metropolitan size. Research Policy36 (1): 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.09.026
Berents H (2014) “It’s about finding a way”: children, sites of opportunity, and building everyday peace in Colombia. International Journal of Children’s Rights 22 (2): 361-384. ttps://doi.org/10.1163/15718182-02202006
Bettencourt L, Lobo J, Strumsky D, West G (2010) Urban scaling and its deviations: revealing the structure of wealth, innova-tion and crime across cities. PlosOne 5 (11): e13541. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013541
Boutros-Ghali B (1992) An agenda for peace: preventive diplo-macy, peacemaking and peace-keeping, New York. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to the statement adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council, 31 January 1992. https://doi.org/10.1177/004711789201100302
Boudon L (1996) Guerrillas and the state: the role of the state in the Colombian peace process. Journal of Latin American Studies 28 (2): 279-297. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X00013018
Burnyeat G (2013) On a peak in Darien: community peace initia-tives in Urabá, Colombia. Journal of Human Rights Practice 5 (3): 435-445. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/hut016
Cameron S (2000) Children’s rights in conflict and peace: the role of children as peace-makers in Colombia. Development (Basingstoke) 43 (1): 40-45.
Camacho A, Rodríguez C (2012) Firm exit and armed conflict in Colombia. Journal of Conflict Resolution 57 (1): 89-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002712464848
Castro I, Luis Galán J, Bravo S (2014) Entrepreneurship and social capital: evidence from a Colombian business incubator. Innovar 24: 91-100. https://doi.org/10.15446/innovar.v24n1spe.47554
Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica [National Center of His-tory and Memory] (2013) Date-base from the report: ¡Basta ya! http://goo.gl/1RJz7W
Centro de Pensamiento de Estrategias Competitivas – CEPEC and Consejo Privado de Competitividad – CPC [Think-Tank for Competitive Strategies and Private Competitiveness Coun-cil] (2014) Índice departamental de competitividad. Zetta Comunicadores, Bogotá.
Cepeda L, Meisel A (2013) ¿Habrá una segunda oportunidad sobre la tierra? Instituciones coloniales y disparidades económicas regionales en Colombia. Banco de la República, Cartagena.
Ching-Chi H, Pugh M (1993) Poverty, income inequality, and violent crime: a meta-analysis of recent aggregate data stu-dies. Criminal Justice Review 18 (2): 182-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401689301800203
Collier P, Hoeffler A (2004) Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Papers 56 (2004): 563-595. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpf064
Congreso de la República de Colombia [National Congress] (1997) Ley 387 – 1997. http://goo.gl/5JjKK0
Cook P, Mack E, Manrique M (2017) Protecting young children from violence in Colombia: linking caregiver empathy with community child rights indicators as a pathway for peace in Medellin’s Comuna 13. Peace and Conflict 23 (1): 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000194
Crime and Violence Indicators-Organization of American States (2011) Indicadores sobre crimen y violencia http://goo.gl/YQ0ubl
Datlas-Colombia (2014) Datlas http://goo.gl/cFpPZw
Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística DANE [National Statistics Department] (2014) Encuesta continua de hogares http://goo.gl/tuoGmH
Departamento Nacional de Planeación [National Planning De-partment] (2008–2016) Indice de Vulnerabilidad Territorial https://goo.gl/2aLq1A
Department of Peace and Conflict Research (2014) Definitions http://goo.gl/6B0oqG
Diazgranados S, Noonan J, Brion-Meisels S, Saldarriaga L, Daza BC, Chávez M, Antonellis I (2014) Transformative peace education with teachers: lessons from Juegos de Paz in rural Colombia. Journal of Peace Education 11 (2): 150-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2014.898627
Estrin S, Korosteleva J, Mickiewicz T (2013) Which institutions encourage entrepreneurial growth aspirations? Journal of Business Venturing 28 (4): 564-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.05.001
Galtung J (1969) Violence, peace, and peace research. Jour-nal of Peace Research 6 (3): 167–191. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/002234336900600301
Gaviria A, Pagés C (2002) Patterns of crime victimizagtion in Latin American cities. Journal of Development Economics67 (1): 181-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(01)00183-3
Galvis L (2015) Crecimiento económico y demográfico regional en Colombia, 1985–2012. Revista de Economía Instituci-onal17 (33): 183-201. https://doi.org/10.18601/01245996.v17n33.08
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2010a, 2011b) Reporte ciudad de Cali. GEM, Colombia.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2010a) Reporte ciudad de Cali. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010b) Reporte ciudad de Bucaramanga. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010c) Reporte ciudad de Medellín. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010d) Reporte región Caribe. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010e) Reporte región del Eje Cafetero. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010f ) Reporte anual de Bogotá. GEM, Colombia.
Goldstone J (2002) How demographic change can lead to violent conflict. Journal of International Affairs 56 (1): 3-22.
Gomez-Suarez A (2017) Peace process pedagogy: lessons from the no-vote victory in the Colombian peace referendum. Comparative Education 53 (3): 462–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2017.1334425
Gomez-Suarez A, Newman J (2013) Safeguarding political guarantees in the Colombian peace process: have Santos and FARC learnt the lessons from the past? Third World Quarterly 34 (5): 819-837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.800747
Hall P, Taylor R (1996) Political science and the three new institutionalism. Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung, Köln.
Henrekson M, Sanandaji T (2014) Small business activity does not measure entrepreneurship. PNAS111 (5): 1760–1765. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1307204111
Ho K (2007) Structural violence as a human rights violation. Essex Human Rights Review 4 (2): 1-17.
Idler A, Belén Garrido M, Mouly C (2015) Peace territories in Colombia: comparing civil resistance in Two War-Torn Communities. Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 10 (3): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2015.1082437
Institute for Economics and Peace (2015) Global Peace Index http://goo.gl/Ysg7qe
International Alert (2006) Local business, local peace: the peace-building potential of the domestic private sector. International Alert, London.
Jones C, Romer P (2009) The new Kaldor facts: ideas, institutions, population, and human capital. National Bureau of Economic Research, Massachusetts. https://doi.org/10.3386/w15094
Klimek P, Hausmann R, Thurner S (2012) Empirical confirmation of creative destruction from world trade data. PlosOne 7 (6): e38924. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038924
Koubi V, Spilker G, Böhmelt T, Bernauer T (2014) Do natural resources matter for interstate and intrastate armed conflict? Journal of Peace Research 51 (2): 227-243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313493455
Langbein L, Knack S (2010) The worldwide governance indicators: six, one, or none? Journal of Development Studies 46 (2): 350-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380902952399
Lederach J (1997) Building peace. United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington.
Maher D, Thomson A (2011) The terror that underpins the “peace”: The political economy of Colombia’s paramilitary demobilization process. Critical Studieson Terrorism 4 (1): 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2011.553391
McNeish J-A (2017) Extracting justice? Colombia’s commitment to mining and energy as a foundation for peace. International Journal of Human Rights 21 (4): 500-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2016.1179031
Mehlum H, Moene K, Torvik R (2006) Institutions and the resource curse. The Economic Journal 116: 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2006.01045.x
Mejía P (2014) Middle-class entrepreneurs and inadequate prospects for social mobility through entrepreneurship in Colombia. Latin American Journal of Economics 51 (2): 279-305. https://doi.org/10.7764/LAJE.51.2.279
Ministerio de Defensa – Policía Nacional [National Ministry of Defense and National Police] (2014) Cifras http://goo.gl/d0vx8R
Nasi C (2012) Instituciones políticas para el posconflicto. In: Rettberg A (Ed) Construcción de paz en Colombia. Bogotá, Universidad de los Andes, 51-88.
Naucke P (2017) Peacebuilding upside down? How a peace community in Colombia builds peace despite the State. Social Anthropology 25 (4): 454-469. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8676.12447
Nolan J (2004) Establishing the statistical relationship between population size and UCR crime rate: Its impact and implications. Journal of Criminal Justice 32 (6): 547-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.08.002
North D (1991) Institutions. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1): 97-112. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.97
Observatorio Colombiano de Ciencia y Tecnología [Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology] (2015) Informe anual de indicadores. Observatorio Colombiano de Ciencia y Tecnología, Bogotá.
Ostrom E (1986) An agenda for study of institutions. Public Choice 48 (1): 3-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00239556
Red Cross (2009) Interview with Peter Wallensteen. International Review of the Red Cross 91 (873): 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383109990166
Rettberg A, Leiteritz R, Nasi C (2011) Private sector and entre-preneurial activity in the context of armed conflict: exploring the mutual determinants between business and organized violence in Colombia. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship 24 (2): 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2011.10593533
Sacipa S, Ballesteros BP, Cardozo J, Novoa MM, Tovar C (2006) Understanding peace through the lens of Colombian youth and adults. Peace and Conflict12 (2): 157-174. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327949pac1202_4
Schumpeter J (1942) Capitalism, socialism and democracy. Harper, New York.
Scott W (2004) Institutional theory: contributing to a theoretical research program. In: Smith K, Hitt M (Eds) Great minds in management: the process of theory development. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
The World Bank (2002) Worldwide governance indicators http://goo.gl/vtnBJ6Transparencia por Colombia [Transparency for Colombia] (2004-2015) Índice de transparencia departamental https://goo.gl/qlgAeZ
UNHCR (2016) Global trends: forced discplacement in 2015. UNHCR, Geneva.
Unidad de Víctimas [National Victims Unit] (2014) Registro único de víctimas http://goo.gl/uztKnL
United Nations (n.d.) Global issues http://goo.gl/32vxNm
World Economic Forum (2015) The global competitiveness report 2015–2016 http://goo.gl/Tq3vZm
Williamson O (1985) The economic institutions of capitalism: firms, markets, relational contracting. The Free Press, New York.
Acemoglu D, Robinson J (2012) Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. New York: Crown Publishing Group.
Acemoglu D, García C, Robinson J (2012) Finding Eldorado: slavery and long-run development in Colombia. Journal of Comparative Economics 40 (4): 534-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.07.003
Acemoglu D, Johnson S, Robinson J (2005) Institutions as the fundamental cause of long-run growth. In: Aghion P, Dur-lauf S (Eds) Handbook of economic growth. North Holland: Elsevier, 385-472.
Alther G (2006) Colombian peace communities: the role of NGOs in supporting resistance to violence and oppression. Development in Practice 16 (3-4): 278-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520600694828
Aparicio S, Urbano D, Gómez D (2016) The role of innovative entrepreneurship within Colombian business cycle scenarios: a system dynamics approach. Futures 81: 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2016.02.004
Arjona A (2016) Institutions, civilian resistance, and wartime social order: a process-driven natural experiment in the Colombian Civil War. Latin American Politics and Society 58 (3): 99-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2016.00320.x
Avilés, W (2001) Institutions, military policy, and human rights in Colombia. Latin American Perspectives 28 (1): 31-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X0102800103
Baumol, W (1996) Entrepreneurship: productive, unproductive, and destructive. Journal of Business Venturing 11: 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)00014-X
Bettencourt L, Lobo J, Strumsky D (2007) Invention in the city: Increasing returns to patenting as a scaling function of metropolitan size. Research Policy36 (1): 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.09.026
Berents H (2014) “It’s about finding a way”: children, sites of opportunity, and building everyday peace in Colombia. International Journal of Children’s Rights 22 (2): 361-384. ttps://doi.org/10.1163/15718182-02202006
Bettencourt L, Lobo J, Strumsky D, West G (2010) Urban scaling and its deviations: revealing the structure of wealth, innova-tion and crime across cities. PlosOne 5 (11): e13541. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013541
Boutros-Ghali B (1992) An agenda for peace: preventive diplo-macy, peacemaking and peace-keeping, New York. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to the statement adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council, 31 January 1992. https://doi.org/10.1177/004711789201100302
Boudon L (1996) Guerrillas and the state: the role of the state in the Colombian peace process. Journal of Latin American Studies 28 (2): 279-297. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X00013018
Burnyeat G (2013) On a peak in Darien: community peace initia-tives in Urabá, Colombia. Journal of Human Rights Practice 5 (3): 435-445. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/hut016
Cameron S (2000) Children’s rights in conflict and peace: the role of children as peace-makers in Colombia. Development (Basingstoke) 43 (1): 40-45.
Camacho A, Rodríguez C (2012) Firm exit and armed conflict in Colombia. Journal of Conflict Resolution 57 (1): 89-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002712464848
Castro I, Luis Galán J, Bravo S (2014) Entrepreneurship and social capital: evidence from a Colombian business incubator. Innovar 24: 91-100. https://doi.org/10.15446/innovar.v24n1spe.47554
Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica [National Center of His-tory and Memory] (2013) Date-base from the report: ¡Basta ya! http://goo.gl/1RJz7W
Centro de Pensamiento de Estrategias Competitivas – CEPEC and Consejo Privado de Competitividad – CPC [Think-Tank for Competitive Strategies and Private Competitiveness Coun-cil] (2014) Índice departamental de competitividad. Zetta Comunicadores, Bogotá.
Cepeda L, Meisel A (2013) ¿Habrá una segunda oportunidad sobre la tierra? Instituciones coloniales y disparidades económicas regionales en Colombia. Banco de la República, Cartagena.
Ching-Chi H, Pugh M (1993) Poverty, income inequality, and violent crime: a meta-analysis of recent aggregate data stu-dies. Criminal Justice Review 18 (2): 182-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401689301800203
Collier P, Hoeffler A (2004) Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Papers 56 (2004): 563-595. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpf064
Congreso de la República de Colombia [National Congress] (1997) Ley 387 – 1997. http://goo.gl/5JjKK0
Cook P, Mack E, Manrique M (2017) Protecting young children from violence in Colombia: linking caregiver empathy with community child rights indicators as a pathway for peace in Medellin’s Comuna 13. Peace and Conflict 23 (1): 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000194
Crime and Violence Indicators-Organization of American States (2011) Indicadores sobre crimen y violencia http://goo.gl/YQ0ubl
Datlas-Colombia (2014) Datlas http://goo.gl/cFpPZw
Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística DANE [National Statistics Department] (2014) Encuesta continua de hogares http://goo.gl/tuoGmH
Departamento Nacional de Planeación [National Planning De-partment] (2008–2016) Indice de Vulnerabilidad Territorial https://goo.gl/2aLq1A
Department of Peace and Conflict Research (2014) Definitions http://goo.gl/6B0oqG
Diazgranados S, Noonan J, Brion-Meisels S, Saldarriaga L, Daza BC, Chávez M, Antonellis I (2014) Transformative peace education with teachers: lessons from Juegos de Paz in rural Colombia. Journal of Peace Education 11 (2): 150-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2014.898627
Estrin S, Korosteleva J, Mickiewicz T (2013) Which institutions encourage entrepreneurial growth aspirations? Journal of Business Venturing 28 (4): 564-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.05.001
Galtung J (1969) Violence, peace, and peace research. Jour-nal of Peace Research 6 (3): 167–191. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/002234336900600301
Gaviria A, Pagés C (2002) Patterns of crime victimizagtion in Latin American cities. Journal of Development Economics67 (1): 181-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(01)00183-3
Galvis L (2015) Crecimiento económico y demográfico regional en Colombia, 1985–2012. Revista de Economía Instituci-onal17 (33): 183-201. https://doi.org/10.18601/01245996.v17n33.08
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2010a, 2011b) Reporte ciudad de Cali. GEM, Colombia.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2010a) Reporte ciudad de Cali. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010b) Reporte ciudad de Bucaramanga. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010c) Reporte ciudad de Medellín. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010d) Reporte región Caribe. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010e) Reporte región del Eje Cafetero. GEM, Colombia.
GEM (2010f ) Reporte anual de Bogotá. GEM, Colombia.
Goldstone J (2002) How demographic change can lead to violent conflict. Journal of International Affairs 56 (1): 3-22.
Gomez-Suarez A (2017) Peace process pedagogy: lessons from the no-vote victory in the Colombian peace referendum. Comparative Education 53 (3): 462–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2017.1334425
Gomez-Suarez A, Newman J (2013) Safeguarding political guarantees in the Colombian peace process: have Santos and FARC learnt the lessons from the past? Third World Quarterly 34 (5): 819-837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.800747
Hall P, Taylor R (1996) Political science and the three new institutionalism. Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung, Köln.
Henrekson M, Sanandaji T (2014) Small business activity does not measure entrepreneurship. PNAS111 (5): 1760–1765. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1307204111
Ho K (2007) Structural violence as a human rights violation. Essex Human Rights Review 4 (2): 1-17.
Idler A, Belén Garrido M, Mouly C (2015) Peace territories in Colombia: comparing civil resistance in Two War-Torn Communities. Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 10 (3): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2015.1082437
Institute for Economics and Peace (2015) Global Peace Index http://goo.gl/Ysg7qe
International Alert (2006) Local business, local peace: the peace-building potential of the domestic private sector. International Alert, London.
Jones C, Romer P (2009) The new Kaldor facts: ideas, institutions, population, and human capital. National Bureau of Economic Research, Massachusetts. https://doi.org/10.3386/w15094
Klimek P, Hausmann R, Thurner S (2012) Empirical confirmation of creative destruction from world trade data. PlosOne 7 (6): e38924. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038924
Koubi V, Spilker G, Böhmelt T, Bernauer T (2014) Do natural resources matter for interstate and intrastate armed conflict? Journal of Peace Research 51 (2): 227-243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313493455
Langbein L, Knack S (2010) The worldwide governance indicators: six, one, or none? Journal of Development Studies 46 (2): 350-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380902952399
Lederach J (1997) Building peace. United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington.
Maher D, Thomson A (2011) The terror that underpins the “peace”: The political economy of Colombia’s paramilitary demobilization process. Critical Studieson Terrorism 4 (1): 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2011.553391
McNeish J-A (2017) Extracting justice? Colombia’s commitment to mining and energy as a foundation for peace. International Journal of Human Rights 21 (4): 500-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2016.1179031
Mehlum H, Moene K, Torvik R (2006) Institutions and the resource curse. The Economic Journal 116: 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2006.01045.x
Mejía P (2014) Middle-class entrepreneurs and inadequate prospects for social mobility through entrepreneurship in Colombia. Latin American Journal of Economics 51 (2): 279-305. https://doi.org/10.7764/LAJE.51.2.279
Ministerio de Defensa – Policía Nacional [National Ministry of Defense and National Police] (2014) Cifras http://goo.gl/d0vx8R
Nasi C (2012) Instituciones políticas para el posconflicto. In: Rettberg A (Ed) Construcción de paz en Colombia. Bogotá, Universidad de los Andes, 51-88.
Naucke P (2017) Peacebuilding upside down? How a peace community in Colombia builds peace despite the State. Social Anthropology 25 (4): 454-469. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8676.12447
Nolan J (2004) Establishing the statistical relationship between population size and UCR crime rate: Its impact and implications. Journal of Criminal Justice 32 (6): 547-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.08.002
North D (1991) Institutions. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1): 97-112. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.97
Observatorio Colombiano de Ciencia y Tecnología [Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology] (2015) Informe anual de indicadores. Observatorio Colombiano de Ciencia y Tecnología, Bogotá.
Ostrom E (1986) An agenda for study of institutions. Public Choice 48 (1): 3-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00239556
Red Cross (2009) Interview with Peter Wallensteen. International Review of the Red Cross 91 (873): 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383109990166
Rettberg A, Leiteritz R, Nasi C (2011) Private sector and entre-preneurial activity in the context of armed conflict: exploring the mutual determinants between business and organized violence in Colombia. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship 24 (2): 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2011.10593533
Sacipa S, Ballesteros BP, Cardozo J, Novoa MM, Tovar C (2006) Understanding peace through the lens of Colombian youth and adults. Peace and Conflict12 (2): 157-174. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327949pac1202_4
Schumpeter J (1942) Capitalism, socialism and democracy. Harper, New York.
Scott W (2004) Institutional theory: contributing to a theoretical research program. In: Smith K, Hitt M (Eds) Great minds in management: the process of theory development. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
The World Bank (2002) Worldwide governance indicators http://goo.gl/vtnBJ6Transparencia por Colombia [Transparency for Colombia] (2004-2015) Índice de transparencia departamental https://goo.gl/qlgAeZ
UNHCR (2016) Global trends: forced discplacement in 2015. UNHCR, Geneva.
Unidad de Víctimas [National Victims Unit] (2014) Registro único de víctimas http://goo.gl/uztKnL
United Nations (n.d.) Global issues http://goo.gl/32vxNm
World Economic Forum (2015) The global competitiveness report 2015–2016 http://goo.gl/Tq3vZm
Williamson O (1985) The economic institutions of capitalism: firms, markets, relational contracting. The Free Press, New York.